• FOUR CUPS OF WINE.
• FOUR QUESTIONS.
• FOUR TYPES OF CHILD.

The answer is that it is probably pure chance. Each four has an explanation of its own and they are not interconnected. It is possible to make almost as good a case for the number three. For we have:

• THREE SPECIAL PIECES OF MATSAH.
• RABBI GAMALIEL'S THREE REQUIRED EXPLANATIONS.
• THREE LOTS OF FOUR LISTED ABOVE.

Leaning to left on yellow cushion. South Spain, c. 1350.

The custom of leaning at the Seder is symbolic of freedom which dates back to Roman times. At that time it was the custom at banquets for freemen to recline on couches to eat, while their slaves stood in the background serving the food. Leaning is mentioned in the Mishnah. Even the poorest man in Israel must not eat [on the night of Passover] until he reclines^31.

The Talmud gives more details and says that we should lean on the left side^32. because it aids digestion. However the reason was probably because most Jews were right-handed. Leaning to the left meant that the right hand was free to feed with. The Talmud^33. links leaning with freedom. This is the basis for the present custom where we lean for those foods which symbolise freedom eg. Wine but not for those concerning slavery eg. Maror. We lean for eating Matsah because although the dough was made while in slavery, it was not finally baked until they were on the journey out of Egypt.^34.

Paschal Lamb Kaufmann Haggadah. c. 1370. (Note the wrong vowel)

Z'ro'a, the lamb bone, goes back about 3,270 years to THE FIRST PASSOVER in Egypt when a lamb was killed, roasted and eaten.^35. For the development of this practice see HISTORY OF THE SEDER. Since the destruction of the temple in 70 CE no sacrifices have taken place but a lamb bone was placed on the table as a reminder of the old practice. The bone used is usually the shank bone from the shoulder of the lamb. For this reminds us of the Z'ro'a n'tuyah the outstretched arm of God with which he was said to have brought us out of slavery.^36. The origin of the lamb was probably the thank offering of our nomadic shepherd ancestors, which they made even longer than 3,270 years ago, at the lambing season which falls at Passover.

After 70 CE we were not permitted to eat roast lamb at the Seder meal lest someone might think that it had been sacrificed. There are some families who for the same reason use a chicken bone. Some vegetarians do not have a bone at all and fill the empty space on the plate with some notice or symbol to remind the family of the past practice. For it can not be ignored completely as Rabbi Gamaliel said unless one has explained three things at the Seder (the Paschal Lamb, the Matsah and the Maror) one has not fulfilled ones duties on Seder night.^37.

Betsah, the egg as a symbol is not as old as the others on the Seder plate. It is not mentioned in the Mishnah or the Talmud. The custom appears later than 1000 CE. (Maimonides did not know of it.) The explanations given for it are:

The mythical beasts. Left to right: Wild ox, Ziz and Leviathan Ulm,Germany . 1238.

1. There were two sacrifices offered and eaten on Passover which were the Paschal lamb and the Chagigah.^38. The bone reminds us of the lamb and the egg links to the Chagigah.
2. The egg symbolises freedom from slavery. This explanation uses a pun on be'a, the Aramaic equivalent of betsah (egg) and quotes the saying It pleased (be'a) the All-Merciful One to redeem us.^39.
3. A symbol of redemption. An old Jewish legend says that at the end of time the righteous will be summoned to a feast when they will eat from the mythical beasts Leviathan (fish) and Ziz (bird).^40. The lamb symbolises Leviathan and the egg, the bird called Ziz.^41.

It is the custom in some Ashkenazi families to serve a hard-boiled egg in salt water as the first course of the Seder meal. Strictly speaking it is not one of the required symbols of the Seder, but only a culinary custom introduced at a later date. The reasons given for this custom are the three mentioned above, to which they added:

4. A sign of mourning (as served in a house of mourning) and therefore symbolises grief at the loss of the Temple and the ability to make the Paschal sacrifices. Many modern Jews no longer regret that animal sacrifices have stopped. If you cut an egg length-wise, it looks like an eye and the salt water provides the tears.

The egg, like the KARPAS and the CHAZERET, may also symbolise the renewal of nature in the spring. In this it may be linked to the Christian Easter egg, with both coming from the same nature symbolism.

Maror, Bitter Herb is eaten at the Seder to remember the bitterness of the lives of the Israelites when they were slaves in Egypt. The custom of eating these is derived from the biblical verse concerning the eating of lamb on the first Passover in Egypt: And they shall eat the meat in that night, roast with fire, and unleavened bread; and with bitter herbs they shall eat it.^42. By the time of the Mishnah and Talmud ^43., the Rabbis were already discussing what plants qualified as bitter herbs. It is often difficult to know precisely which modern species corresponds to the original Hebrew or Aramaic names. Danby's translation of the Mishnah lists ^44. the plants as lettuce, chicory, pepperwort, snakeroot or dandelion while the Soncino Talmud ^45. adds to this list endives, chervil, thistles, various species of ivy, and plants with silvery leaves and a bitter sap. There were several other named species which are not identifiable with any certainty. The Kitsur Shulchan Aruch says horse radish is usually used. ^46.

The amount of Maror which is required to be eaten is an olive's bulk. Do not cheat on this. Remember that olives in Israel grow large. The herbs used have varied in different communities and in different ages. For those with botanical knowledge may like to try to identify the pictures below.

CAN YOU IDENTIFY THESE BITTER HERBS ?
1. Southern Spain c. 1350.		2. Germany, c. 1450.
	4. Venice, 1609.		6. Leghorn c. 1800.
3. Mantua, 1560		5. Copenhagen, 1739.

Charoset is the name a brown paste made of fruits and nuts which is used to temper the taste of the bitter herb. The usual explanation is that it reminds us of the clay from which the Hebrew slaves made bricks. This is the explanation of Rabbi Jochanan which is found in the Talmud.^47. While Rabbi Levi linked it to the apple tree in Egypt under which the Hebrew women gave birth.^48.

Slaves making bricks, Egyptian wall painting, Thebes, c. 15th Cent. BCE.

Charoset was used for a dip in the times of the Mishnah.^49. It is not a food that has to be eaten like the Matsah or the Maror, but it is a long standing custom. Rabbi Levi's explanation implies that about 300 CE apples were used in making Charoset. Amongst Ashkenazi Jews the most usual recipe is Apples, Chopped nuts, Cinnamon, red wine and sugar. Some purists do not use cinnamon powder instead they grate cinnamon sticks so that the slivers of cinnamon remind them of the straw that was mixed into the bricks.^50. Various recipes are used throughout the Jewish world. I recommend an Israeli recipe ^51. which consists of:

• 3 apples. (peeled and grated)
• 6 bananas. (mashed)
• Juice and rind of one lemon.
• juice and rind of one orange.
• 8 oz. Ground peanuts (or other nuts)
• 200cc. Dry red wine.
• Matsah meal as required.
• Candied peel, if desired.
• 2 teaspoons of cinnamon
• Sugar to taste.

This mixture produces a brown sticky muddy clay which is delicious. The quantities given provide the family with a dessert as well.

Removing drops of wine, Based on Mantua, 1560.

During the telling of the story of the exodus, we name each of the ten plagues. As we do so we dip a finger into our cup of wine and remove one drop for each plague. The reason for this is that in order that we should be free others (the Egyptians) had to suffer. Wine is the symbol of joy and so their suffering reduces our joy.^52.

Sometimes the drops of wine are poured out, but most usually a finger is used. Some link this to the phrase the finger of God^53. which was used to describe the plagues.

Chazeret, lettuce is mentioned in the Mishnah.^54. But there, it appears to have been used for the first dipping that of KARPAS. The description of the first Passover said of the lamb with unleavened bread and bitter herbs shall you eat it.^55. The fact that it speaks of herbs in the plural implies that more than one type of herb is required. And so the Chazeret is the second bitter herb.

Washing hands, Venice, 1609.

On two occasions during the Seder hands are washed, but neither of them is a special custom for Passover. It is the custom before saying grace before meals to wash one's hands. This is partly for ritual purposes and partly for hygiene. As this was seen as a commandment, a blessing is said concerning the action. The other occasion is before dipping food into liquid (in this case dipping Karpas.) This is seen as a custom rather than a commandment and no blessing is required. Many authorities say that only the person leading the Seder is required to wash on this occasion.

Two blessings are necessary over the Matsah. The first, the Motsi, is the grace before a meal. It speaks of lechem, bread, for Matsah is unleavened bread. The second blessing is to show that we are aware that eating of Matsah on the first eve of Pesach is a positive commandment.

After having saying two blessings over the Matsah and eating it, and having said one over the Maror and eaten it dipped in Charoset, then we eat bitter herb with two pieces of Matsah. We say:^56. Thus Hillel used to do when the Temple was still standing, he would put together some Paschal lamb, some Matsah and some Maror and the eat them together to fulfil what it says "With unleavened bread and bitter herbs shall you eat it (the Paschal Lamb)^57."

The verse quoted does not justify our present practice. So why do we have two pieces of Matsah?

1. After the Temple was destroyed it was not permitted to eat roast lamb at the Seder lest someone might think we had sacrificed it.
2. Therefore one piece of Matsah is a substitute for the lamb and the other piece is genuine matsah.
3. There is another occasion when lamb is replaced by Matsah at the Seder. When we eat the APHIKOMEN. at the end of the meal, originally it was the taste of lamb which was to remain in our mouths now it is matsah.

One might think that the present custom was introduced shortly after 70 CE but it is not mentioned in the Mishnah. In the Talmud differing views were expressed by Rabbi Johanan and Rav Ashi (d. 427 CE) as to whether one had fulfilled ones religious duties by just eating these three foods together or whether one should eat them separately with their own respective blessings. Because the matter was not decided conclusively ^58. it was decided to play safe do both. So first we eat them separately and then together in Hillel's sandwich. This custom therefore dates from the 5th century at the earliest.

Elijah announcing the Age of the Messiah with shofar. Mantua, 1560.

An extra cup is placed on the table and this is set aside for Elijah. Elijah was taken up to heaven alive^59. So there is a tradition that he is wandering the earth disguised as a poor beggar and waits to announce the future age of the Messiah, when there will be justice, freedom and peace for all.

There was a debate between Rabbis as to whether we should have four or five cups of wine.^60. It has been pointed out that in Exodus there is a fifth promise I will bring you into the land ^61. This argument was not decided and in such cases the rabbis waited for it to be ruled on by Elijah. Hence this is called the cup of Elijah. For several centuries some Jews had a fifth cup of wine^62. over which they said the Great Hallel (Psalm 136). The fifth cup appears in Haggadot from the time of Rav Amram (9^th cent) and of Saadia Ha-Gaon (10^th Cent.)

Emptying the cup of wrath. Kaufmann Haggadah c. 1370.

The custom of opening the door after the third cup of wine has been drunk is probably the last of the customs added to the Seder ritual. The Amsterdam Haggadah of 1695 was probably the earliest to include instructions for doing this. Long before this various verses were included at this point beginning with Pour out Your wrath on the nations which do not know You and the kingdoms which do not call on Your name.^63. The number of verses included varied from age to age and from place to place. In the 9^th Century the Haggadah of Rav Amram had just two verses.

During the persecutions of the Jews in the middle ages extra verses were added. It is not clear how long before 1695 the custom of opening the door began. The Mantua Haggadah of 1560 at this point has a PICTURE OF ELIJAH welcoming the Messiah to Jerusalem with the gate of Jerusalem open behind them. Was the gate open to show that the Messiah was welcome or because the custom had already started?

The Reasons for opening the door are:

• It shows our trust in God and such faith will merit God sending the Messiah to redeem us. When the Messiah comes there will be judgement and he will ask God to pour out His wrath.
• The eve of Passover was called a night of watching^64. and we see better with the door open.
• To show that we are not doing anything at the Seder of which we are ashamed. (In answer to the mediaeval blood libel that often occurred at Easter.)

Liberal and Reform Haggadot have omitted these verses and a few Orthodox Rabbis have also recommended dropping them as inappropriate for our times. Instead the Progressive movements usually refer to:

A Messianic Age when there will be freedom, justice and peace for all.^65.

Passover is described in the Kiddush as z'man cherutenu, the season of our freedom. At the Seder we have various symbols which emphasize our freedom.

• LEANING.
• FOUR CUPS OF WINE.
• DOOR OPENING
• ELIJAH'S CUP.
• MATSAH. This symbolises both slavery and freedom. For the dough was mixed while in slavery, but it was baked and the Matsot eaten when they were free.

Ideal Jerusalem The dove of peace. Zim Haggadah, 1952.

Towards the end of the Seder we say L'shanah ha-ba'ah birushayim, Next Year in Jerusalem. Some Jews take this literally and think of the geographical Jerusalem where the Paschal sacrifice was originally offered. Other Jews think of the spiritual Jerusalem or the ideal Jerusalem , where all will be free and oppression be no more. (The concept of Blake's Jerusalem) So at the end of the Seder we return to the theme of Passover expressed in the opening prayer of Ha Lachma Anya in which we said This year many are enslaved, Ha-shanah ha-ba'ah b'nei chorin, Next year as free people.

The Seder concludes with a number of Songs. These were mostly introduced by the Ashkenazi Jews. Some are of a religious nature, while others seem to be little more than children's songs. Some are alphabetically arranged, one is numerical and another is like "The House that Jack Built" or "There Was An Old Woman Who Swallowed a Fly". Attempts have been made to interpret them in a Jewish way, so Chad Gadya was taken to refer to the various nations that persecuted the Jews. However, others think that they were included just for the children.

It possible to get some approximate dates for these songs by looking when they were first included into the Haggadah. I have compiled the following table:

However, the first time that they appeared in the Haggadah was not always the date of composition, and Idelsohn ^66. dates the songs as:

• Vayhi B'hatsi Ha-Lailah - Yannai in the 7^th century.
• Amartem Zevach Pesach - Eliezer Ha-Kallir c. 700.
• Ki' Lo Na'eh- Roth suggests France or Germany in the Middle Ages. ^67.
• Adir Hu - Prague 1527.
• Echad Mi Yode'a? - Southern France, but no date given.
• Chad Gadya. - the earliest publication was Prague 1590.

The Seder is very much centred on the children. Two traditional parts put in for their benefit were THE FOUR QUESTIONS. and the search for the THE APHIKOMEN. Some of the CONCLUDING SONGS. were included for children and the use of the gastronomical teaching aids were also introduced for the young. The many illustrations in Haggadot, some of which occur on this web site, were probably included to keep the interest of the children. The following decoration from the Ashkenazi Haggadah of 1480 is not only a work of art but it is also an early example of a child's puzzle. For it could well have been entitled:

CAN YOU FIND THE FIVE LOST SEDER VISITORS?

PUT MOUSE OVER PICTURE TO SEE THE ANSWER.

• Some families from North Africa use spring onions for the Karpas and before they eat it they playfully hit each other with them as if they were Egyptian task-masters.
• In a family with Chasidic background, after the father breaks the Matsah he put its it in a napkin which he ties on to a stick. Then gets up from the table, puts the stick over his shoulder like Dick Whittington and walks round the table followed by the children and he says Thus did our ancestors when they came out of Egypt.
• A Sephardi family puts the Aphikomen in the back of their Haggadah and keeps it there till the following Pesach.
• The Samaritans who separated from Judaism in the 4 century BCE still sacrifice a lamb at Passover.

The matsah used for the background of this page is genuine and was certified by a Beth Din as being Kasher Lefesach (Kosher for Passover). The piece of matsah was placed directly into the scanner and a portion of the scanned image was tiled. However the scanner was not checked over beforehand to see whether it was free from chamets (leavening).